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On a PoS blockchain, staking is the process of actively participating in transaction validation (similar to mining). Anyone with the minimum necessary. "The Merge" not only pumped the price of ETH tokens, as opposed to what was promised, but its switch to a PoS model created a slew of issues. Of course, Ethereum's move to proof of stake has been six months away for years now. “[We thought] it would take one year to [implement] POS . PLACE YOUR BETWAY SIGN

In blockchain networks, an epoch is a period of time that dictates when certain events will occur. Examples include the rate at which rewards are distributed or when a new group of validators will be assigned to validate transactions. Blockchain protocols that utilize epochs vary in what time period defines an epoch. With PoS Ethereum, an epoch occurs every 32 slots 6. Each slot in an epoch represents a set time for a committee of validators groups of at least validators to propose and attest to vote on the validity of new blocks.

How do committees work in Ethereum? In order to ensure fairness in the validating process, the Beacon Chain randomly groups stakers together into committees of at least validators and assigns them to slots. How do validators get rewarded? In each epoch, there are 32 sets of committees. After a committee is assigned to a block, one random person out of the in the committee is selected as the block proposer. That person is the only one who can propose a new block of transactions while the other people vote on the proposal and attest to the transactions.

Once a majority agrees, the block is added to the blockchain and the validator who proposed the block receives a variable amount of ETH based on a formulaic calculation. How are validators penalized for bad behavior? There are penalties if validators behave dishonestly or go offline. For example, proposing multiple blocks equivocating or submitting contradictory attestations votes results in punishments called slashings, which means validators lose a percentage of their staked ETH.

The amount of ether slashed depends on the number of validators being slashed around the same time, otherwise known as the "correlation penalty. How is finality determined on PoS? Finality is the concept that transactions on a blockchain become immutable. It guarantees that data cannot be altered, canceled or lost once included in the canonical chain. The time to reach a state of finality depends on the blockchain's latency level.

Note that blocks may still be chained together; the key difference is that consensus on a block can come within one block, and does not depend on the length or size of the chain after it. What are the benefits of Proof of Stake over Proof of Work? No need to consume large quantities of electricity in order to secure a blockchain. Because of the lack of high electricity consumption requirements there is not as much need to issue as many new coins in order to motivate participants to keep participating in the network.

It may theoretically even be possible to have negative net issuance, where a portion of transaction fees is "burned" thus decreasing the supply over time. Proof of Stake opens the door to a wider array of techniques that use game-theoretic mechanism design in order to more effectively discourage centralized cartels from forming and, if they do form, from acting in ways that are harmful to the network such as selfish mining in Proof of Work.

Reduced centralization risks, as economies of scale are much less of an issue. Invalid chain finalization: validators finalize an invalid or unavailable block. Liveness denial: validators stop finalizing blocks.

Censorship: validators block some or all transactions or blocks from entering the chain. In the first case, users can socially coordinate out-of-band to agree which finalized block came first, and favor that block. The second case can be solved with fraud proofs and data availability proofs. The third case can be solved by a modification to PoS algorithms that gradually reduces "leaks" non-participating nodes' weights in the validator set if they do not participate in consensus; the Casper FFG paper includes a description of this.

The fourth is most difficult. The fourth can be recovered from via a "minority soft fork", where a minority of honest validators agree the majority is censoring them, and stop building on their chain. At that point, the market is expected to favor the chain controlled by honest nodes over the chain controlled by dishonest nodes.

For staking your ETH and attesting to correct blocks, you will be rewarded with additional ETH through a network wide interest rate as well as receive a portion of network transaction fees. Details can be found here. What are the minimum requirements to stake? There are two main types of software to be aware of when considering staking on Ethereum: Beacon nodes: This is the hub for your validators.

Stores canonical state, handles peers and incoming sync, propagates blocks and attestations. Validator clients: Talks to your beacon node and signs blocks. You can have multiple of these at 32 ETH each. Can swap underlying beacon nodes efficiently.

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